) Theory Of Communication.

Introduction ; Mass communication operate in our vast society in differet ways and diverse manners.Mass communication influence the society members through their media operations resulting a considerable ‘effect’to the society.Though ,few important theories of mass communication have been established so far, as to study and verify various aspects of mass communication that enable us in evaluating the behaviour, barriers and overall uses and impact of mass communication being operated in the society. We can realize as well,as highlight the inter-relationship and inter-dependency between the mass communication and our society with the aid of such theories that we have. The theories are as follows;1.2; Hypodermic Theory or ‘Magic Bullet Theory’.During the world war (11), the people would carry different ideas or thought about the mass media activities and operations. The mass people were apprehended and frightened of mass media, as they could induce and influence several persons and had the empowered abilies a lot, to make up the people as they had intended for. At then, media messages were thought to be magic like which could have acted as ‘Bullet’.Media messages were to be considered as dangerous bullets which could shoot or inflict directly any person easily. But practically it can not be happened so. Everyone among the mass people , does not react the same messages equally in the same way. As it is studied that, reactions from the audiences to the same messages differ with wide variations of charactersics ,so this ‘bullet theory’ can not be suitable to fulfill the purpose of mass communication. Bullet theory has emphatically considered as if, all audiences are unanimous and identical in nature. It could never be possible, as every personality carries distinct intelligence, perception, taste and socio-economic status in the society.1.3; Individual Indiference Theory or Psychological theory.With a view to studying the effect of communication, so many psychological approaches have been made up so far, which gave the birth of few theories of communication in this regrd. Among those theories the most important one is ‘Individual Indifference’ theory. According to this theory,the different personality variables result in different reactions to the same stimuli. It means that the psychological mechanism of individual accouns to his reaction to the mass media messages. It can stated in this manner that,the reactions to the media contents as exhibited by the audience members differ accordingly to their motivation, predisposion toaccept or reject the media messages, their belief, morals and values, intelligence, needs and interests and opinions.
Among the innumerous psychological studies have been executed so far, two important concepts that emarge, can be considered significantly. These two concepts are ‘selective expossure’ and’selective perception’ which appear to be a barrier between the message and effect actively. Media messages can not produce any influence on these types of audience members who belong to the group of ‘selective expossure’ and ‘selective perception’ in the communication process. Such barriers evolved due to selective exposssure and selective perception, do limit the scope of impact of mass communication on the people directly.

Selective Expossure; It happens when the audience members are selectively emphasized or tend to on communications in accordance with their established conviction and attitudes and avoid the other communications as if, their belief might not be challenged anyhow. Such audience members do like to stay within the boundary of preferred communication, where they feel better and get easy .
For instance, the followers of ‘communism’, do allow themselves to get exposed to anticommunist rallies, meeings, newspapers and other types of communications with the apprehension of facing any challenge that might inflict their beliefs and fidelity. Simply, they try keep themselves from anykinds of confliction or embarrassment.

Selective perception; After being selectively exposed to any communication according to their preferences, the individuals tend to stay at or read into messages as per the fulfillments of their needs and interests. It is called selective perception. Selective perception implies the inclination of audience members to specific messages in the process of communication avoiding or overpassing the others of importace even. It also signifies the attitudes or tendencies of audience members to misinterpret or misevaluate the messages according to their predisposition and suitability. Very often it has been experienced , that the audience members belong to this group of selective perception, have tried prejudicially to tweast or temper the antiprejudice messages to appear or exist as in the form of biased. Such audience members distorts the message to mean or sound according to them in biased manner. According to the experiment conducted by Mr,Biggot,who showed that the prejudiced people twisted the meanng of anti-prejudiced propaganda so it ended up reinforcing their existing biases.
In an another experiment carried jointly by Melvin L,De Fleur and Sandra Bell-Rokeach,which showed that individual audience members selectively attend to interpretor retain the messages particularly if they are related to their interests, consistent with their attitudes,congruent to their beliefs and supportive of their values.
The above two experimental results indicate the barriers that evolved between Mass media and the audience members significantly, due toinfluence produced from ‘ selective expossure’ and ‘selective perception’.

1.4; Personel Influence Theory.

This theory specifically based on the facts of election, and was developed by Paul E, Lazersfeld after the presidential election of the US that held in the year 1940. According to his studies, Lazersfeld followed that the voters were not influenced directly by the mass communication. Interpersonal relationships had the predominance over the mass media in influencing the audience members in their dicesion making,was observed in the said study. Political discussion with others, as held by the audience members particularly with the ‘ opinion leader’, had more effecivet outcome respect to their decision making than the mass media could manage or excute the same. This study on voters as influenced by the ‘opinion leader’ further had led to develop two theories in this regard are; (a) Two-step flowt Theory, (b) Multi-step flow Theory, are discussed as follows;

(a) Two-step flow theory :- According to this theory that envisages that, the informations usually flow from the mass communication i,e. mass media sources to the ‘opinion leader’ directly and then trnspass to the less active section of the population. It happens so that the informations available to the major people of the society,exist as secondhand. Because the informations which come to the ‘opinion leader’ from the mass media at first, are used and processed by the ‘opinion leader’ for further forwarding or transmission to the unaware major population of the society.The major people access the secondhand message i,e. different from the original one as delivered by the mass media initially.
As per the study,it was seen that in general the voters did not have any regular exposure or access to the mass media significantly. All they have access to the ‘opinion leader’ who had enormous influence over them in moulding their decision and setting up their opinion considerably. Here it is very clear from the studied result and analysis, that the mass media operations have been overturned and inflcted by the ‘opinion leader’ as well.

(b) Multi-step flow theory :- This theory came after the modification of two-step flow theory, which stated as ; the ‘opinion leader’ possess the ability to influence upward i,e. mass media and downward i,e. the less active or unaware section of the people of the society. The ‘opinion leader’ can direct the editors of different mass media like radio,newspaper, and television,that how they will work in disseminating the messages to the audience members. Here mass media messages are distorted forcefully and made according to the desire of the ‘opinion leader’. Again the ‘opinion leader’ discusses and exchanges ‘views and ideas’ with other ‘opinion leader’ to produce ‘sideway’ influences. Finally it happens so,that the messages are reaching to the less active users or audiences through few junctions or relay points. Informationsfrom the mass media, are coming to the audiences, either directly, or by secondhandly or by thirdhandly and so on . In these ways of transmission of messages lose its originality.

We see that the above mentioned theories of informations diminish and discredit the impact or influence of mass communication due to external barriers like interceptive influence of ‘opinion leader’, interpersonal channels and social relations of audiences. These interceptive influences are sufficiently abe to dilute the messages of mass mediay as well as diffuse the optimum effect of mass media.

1.5 Sociological heory Of Mass Communication;

While searching to have a significant relationship between the mass communication and the social changes , sociological approaches in this regard have succeeded in focusing furthermore on the values, beliefs and passion of the society people as retained by the mass media through its’ cultivation and how mass media set up agenda for the people of the society.Not only that, how and whythe mass media have been used by the people o the society, have been highlighted. The mass media do possess control over the people of the society, is also established by different sociological approaches. Different approaches have led to develop few important theories in elaborating all in this regard.

Cultivating Theory; The mass media indulge in cultivating messages that constitute or form a types of images and beliefs in within the audience members of the society. A persistent and repeated exposure to the mass media pragramms or messages, audience members are seemingly moulded or transformed to maintain that images and beliefs. According to george gerbner it is “ cultivating of dominant image pattern”,who developed this theory of cultivation.Mass media cultivate what messages in terms of their activities or regular presentation, the users or audiences of the mass media absorb those outcome, in the subconscious status of their mind, and get it reinforcedly in their mind and ultimately do carry it as common belief, customs and tentative to the contemporary world.
According to this theory, Gerbner wanted to show that messages of mass media do conform to the real life and inspire to fantacy as well as to ignore practicability. For a long and repeated exposure to the television messages or programme, lead to change or mould the attitudes,beliefs, judgements and values of the people of the society significantly.

Agenda-Setting heory; This theory was developed by Macomb and Shaw, in relation with the election campaigning, whre the important issues or ‘agendas’ of party, are constituted by the politicians, before approaching to the voters with a view to convince them. This theory finds a link or conformity between the orders of importance or priorty has been given to the ‘issues’ in the media and the order of significance attached to the same ‘issues’ by the people and the politicians. The theoy ended-up wih this inference that the media priority to the ‘ issues’ became the public priorty ultimately. This phenomenon discredits the media control over the audiences, as they failed to show their predominance over the public in moulding them well.

Agenda-Setting Theory based on election campaigning is insufficient in showing the analysis of media attention to the different ‘ issues’ in the relevant period of time, and some indication of relevant media use by the concerned people. So this theory is remained indecisive.

The use and The Gratification Theory:- The theory based on the question; how do the people use the mass media and why do they use? The theory was developed by Katz. The approaches to the ‘uses’ assumed, that the usears of the mass media are active and they expose to the media willingly. The potential contents of the mass media can not influence the individual who does not find any use of it usually depending upon the environment where he resides. Media use by the people mostly related to to the selectivity, perception and beliefs which are already held within them. The uses of mass media are regulated by these factors like environment where the people reside, people’s interests and needs etc.

The gratification on the other hand implies the rewards and satisfaction acquired by the people after the use of mass media messages or contents. People expose themselves to the mass media contents according to their objectives,habits and interests for achieving pleasure and satisfaction. Mass media provide such pleasure and satisfactions as the awards to the people exposed to media contents.The theory allows to know all about the motives and habits of the audiences behnd their exposure to the mass media.

As per the theory,we can identify three distinct groups, who belong to ‘the uses and gratification’ studies that had been conducted. The first group one,who inquire about the media contents that can provide satisfaction or pleasure. The second another, who intend or pay attention to the ‘social and environmental’ circumstances. The third group at the last, who keenly pay emphasis on the fulfillments of their ‘needs’.

Dependency Theory:- There are so many psychological and social factors which bring obstructions to the mass media in exercising the arbitary control on the audience members of the society. Considering those mentioned impeding factors, a cognizable dependency of mass media on the society people who exist as audiences, was recogonised by De Fleur and Bell-Rokeach through their studies in this regard. De Fleur and Bell-Rokeach developed this theory that can be explained as follows; that the mass media lack their arbitary influence power as well as personal lack of freedom to engage in arbitary communication behaviour well. They added more to say that both mass media and the audience members are imperative and integral part of their society. The psychological and social factors that regulate and controlthe mass media contents as well as media effect on the audiences well. In understanding the society overall,to keep up with our society, we do resort to mass communication in incrasing order. Our dependence and fidelity in mass communication, has been identified very conspicuously. Mass media can claim to have enjoyed such power over us.

1.6 Normative Theories of Mass Communication;

Media is the speaker or presenter of all about facts and happenings that take place in the society. It pay attention and focus on the major considerable issues of the society as to highlight extensively for the public interests. But ‘Normative Theories’ indicate that how do the mass media remain obliged to function in accordance with the political-economic circumstances of the society. Each society has its control over the mass media as to allow them to be operated within the laid guidelinesset up by the respective society. The ‘normative theories’ had been developed by Siebert el al, who classified all the media operations held worldwide in all four categories. Later on two more theories developed by Denis Mcquai,l had been listed in addition to that four theories.
Authoritarian Theory:- The theory specifies the environment in which the media ought to act as the subordinate to the state power or the rulling class. Mass media try to remain loyal to the authorities as to satisfy their needs as well as to fullfil their interests. Though the freedom of speech or press is refused by the authority as well,yet the mass media avoid any implication and regard the principle and order of the state government who carries the opinions of the majority of the state or the society. Mass media perform their activities in accord with the guidelines and orders as stipulated by the rulling party or the government without going to any confliction. The mass media do not undermine to work in such repressive and compulsive environment, where mass media fail to exercise their power as well as establish their identities. Such environment is experiences in dictorial and and orthodox or repressive society, where any deviation or infringement of set up guidelines if committed by the mass media, is considered to be a criminal offencelike and liable to punishment. The mass media do work in compromising manner always with the existing rulling class. Even in democratic regime, during the war and internal or external emergency, mass media have to face such obligations and constraints as imposed by the state government. It is the most common phenon that, in such crucial period of time, the any democratic government operate the mass media according to their principle adopted for satisfying its needs and purposes.

Free Press Theory:- This theory is particularly based on the fundamental right of individual that ensure the ‘freedom of speech and expression’ for everyone. The theory describes the liberty of publishing of any writings or opinions whatsoever any human does want or opt for. Mass media enjoy enormous power in exercising their activities with entitled freedom in liberal democracies. This theory is also denoted as ‘Libertarian Theory’. The theory supports such environment, where expression of opinion is allowed not only to any individual but also to any assembly of people in organized manner. The theory has emphasized the freedom of press to a greater extent which untenable. Because excessive or limitless power of mass media, may bring difficulties to the government of the state in exercising its role and responsibilies smoothly. If mass media encourage any types of misuses of their allowed power intentionally, then serious damage may appear in the form of imbalance and mistrust to the democracy. It is fact, that the free pree theory allow to concentrate power to the ownership concerned but fails to ensure same to the editors as well as the journalists significantly.

Social Responsibilty Theory :- Mass media are basically responsible and accountable to the society in disseminating the news or informations that may reflect the true pictures of the society. They need to follow and maintain certain ethics to establish moral values and beliefs in the society. This theory justifies such responsibility to the mass media as if they they should remain obliged to the informational, social and moral needs of the society. The mass media must focus and pay attention towards the diverse sections and areas of the society despite any priorities. Keeping balance in all respect in decracy, is a hard task indeed. Mass media need to maintain that required balance, through their fair judgement and correct evaluation for every event for the sake of the society. This theory also proposes for the establishment of the self regulatory bodies for the mass media.The self regulatory authority would ensure the followings as below:

(a) Statutes for the editorials and the journalistic works.
(b) The code of ethics.
( c) Anti-monopoly legislations.
(d) regulation of advertisements.

Communist Media Theory :- T he theory evolved after the revolution held in Soviet Russia in the year 1917. This theory was developed with the basic principles of Marx and Engel and also known to be ‘Soviet Mmedia Theory’. According to this theory, mass media must remain under the control of the working class of the country. Media would remain obligated to these working class in serving their purposeses and fulfilling their interests as well. The theory do not support any private or ownership pattern media operation. In such environment, media would require to act positively for the sake of the country, relating to the necessary information, education, motivation and mobilization. The media must encourage and inspire the people of the society by projectingall about of the society in the realm of Marxism and Leninism.

The theory is motly alike to the ‘Authoritarian Theory’ which signifies that, the media would remain under the control of state power where they might perform their activities as self regulatory without an arbitary interference expected from the authorities as held in the case of ‘Authoritarian Theory’.

Development Communication Theory:- The theory is based on how could communication be involved in the act of the development for the nationbuilding. According to this theory, mass media are brought to be engaged to perform all about their activities in line with theplans, programmes and measures those have been adopted nationwide by the government of the state. The mass media must possess the dedicative attitude towards the nation, inspiring and motivating as well, calling them into participations to the developmental works with a view to nation building. So why, in enhancing this great mission as well as accomplishing the hard task of the national development, the freedom of mass media and the journalists need to be restricted unavoidably. In this task of development for the nation, the mass media would highlight the most needful areas like, poverty, mal-nutrition, education, unemployment, drought and flood etc as to aware,motivate and engage the society people into the developmental works ultimately. The mass media would require to inter-transfer every informations between the society people and the government for successful achievements in the mission of the developmental tasks for nation building.
The theory can be established in effective manner, is mostly depending upon how the government of the state could handle and control the mass media in operating them to achieve the target through the national developmental tasks. In persuing the desired tasks for development,the government would require to intervene the freedom of press by restricting them from exercising their rights considerably.

Democratic Participation Theory:- In this theory, Mcquail has put stress on the needs, interests and aspiration of the audiences who are actively involved as well as exposed to the mass media. According to this theory, liberty to access any information and reply to the same, is entertained and suppoted well, In this regard it also ensures the right to use any means or devises for interactive purposes based on small scale operating system in the society.

The above theory has emphasized mostly in exercising the rights of the society people through spreading out the mass media operations in decentralized manner in the community. It also entails that, the mass media should act for preserving the needs and interests of the audiences rather than for its own organization and its professionals.The theory encourage a democratic environment where community participations are are invited significantly.

Few Others Theory Of Communication;-

Mass Society Theory ;-

According to this theory, mass media enjoy as well as exercise their power in the society being influenced partially by the economic and political power that govern the society as well. Mass mediaare oftenly inclined and try to serve the purposes or interests of the mighty economic and political power, through their loosely and appeasing contents. The theory although demonstrates the supremacy of mass media preenting as maintainer and cause of the mass society.

Political Economic Theory Of Media:- The influence of Marxist’s ideology is presentand well experienced in this theory, in which main attention has been paid to the economic status of the mass media rather than its ideological contents. The economic based theory that concentrates more attributes to the ownership patterns and operation of mass media market forces. The theory clearly indicates that the mass media are to be considered as the important parts of the economic system, being closely related with the political power. Moreover, when the economic interest of owner is emphasized, the needs of profit for media operation is also looked for significantly.

This theory limist the indepence of mass media sources and concentrates to the the extensive market of the mass media. According to this theory, the interests of the larger portion of the pooe people are denied considerably.

The Culture and SemioticTheory:-

It is a distinct way of communication, being widely separated from the usual method, is conducted through certain signs and symbols. In this type of communtion procedure, the sender sends only meaning in lieu of any message to the receiver. Although the transmission of message like in the communication process,does not appeaor held r in the semiotic theory, yet it is considered a part of communication due to transfer of meaning that serves the purpose of communication. The signs and symbols enable both sender and receiver to be communicated in meaningful manner.